Blog Post
Understanding Ecochain's UTXO
Wayne Jones • August 11, 2020
In traditional finance, a centralized banking system keeps the users' accounts up to date. The system records transactions through a centralized ledger of debits and credits as well as the balances. In digital currencies, transactions are recorded in quite a different format.
Cryptocurrencies, notably, bitcoin, leverages Unspent Transaction (TX) Output (UTXO) to keep track of transactions. UTXO encompasses outputs and inputs to carry out a transaction. Unspent outputs are used as inputs to a transaction. When a transaction occurs, inputs are deleted, and outputs are created as new UTXOs.
In simple terms, UTXO is the amount of leftover cryptocurrency change that one receives from each transaction. Here is everything you need to know about UTXO and its importance of preventing transactions from being replayed (double spending problem) in blockchain networks.
Explaining UTXO
UTXO is a blockchain protocol that organizes the blockchain's ledger so that no funds are spent twice. Therefore, the protocol helps to avoid the double-spending problem. As the name suggests, UTXO is the unspent output of a transaction. When a transaction occurs on the Bitcoin blockchain, inputs are deleted and outputs created as new UTXOs such that it may be consumed in future transactions.
Think of Bitcoin transactions as cashier checks where the entire amount indicated in the check must be spent in the store. However, Bitcoin is unique in that transactions can be conducted in bits or using fractions of the entire amount.
This is to mean that bitcoin transactions do not occur using a single data byte. Instead, they use multiple fractions of bitcoin retrieved by UTXO algorithms to achieve a spending request. A UTXO database functions to store the chain of bitcoin transactions. Initially, the database is set as empty, but as transactions occur, it becomes filled with different transactions.
To understand how UTXO functions, take, for instance, you have 5BTC and want to buy something that costs 3BTC. You will make a transaction where your entire UTXO balance will be spent. 3BTC will be sent to the other person and 2BTC back to you. Once the transaction is complete, a UTXO is created for both the sender and receiver, specifying how much the user got back or received. The amount the user receives is added to their account balance. UTXO is calculated as follows:
New UTXO= (sum or original UTXO)- (sum of the currency sent to a different address)- (transaction fees for a particular blockchain)
How Important is UTXO?
In the US, bills exist in the denominations of $1, $5, $10, $20, $50 and $100. In nations using the Euro, the bill denominations are €5, €10, €20, €50, €100, €200 and €500. In such countries, you cannot customize bills to any amount since each bill is predetermined. UTXO, however, is very different from fiat currency as it comes in any amount whatsoever. This attribute gives it several benefits, including:
- Flexibility- UTXO offers flexibility in blockchain transactions. Crypto users can have over 1 million KMD in a single UTXO rather than have thousands of fiat bills needed to hold the same amount in cash for fiat currency.
- No Chance of Double Spending- Transactions on the blockchain are recorded in the UTXO database and are uniquely referenced; thus, there is no chance for a transaction to be replayed.
- Transaction Privacy-UTXO preserves users' privacy since users change addresses with every incoming transaction. The use of a new address each time makes it challenging to link different coins to a single owner definitively.
- Enhances Scalability- UTXO can trivially verify transactions in parallel. Due to the stateless nature of UTXO transactions, two transactions can't affect the same UTXO. This makes it possible to process multiple UTXOs at the same time, thus enhancing scalability.
UTXO VS Balance
Balance is the other transaction tracking model in blockchain networks. It is also referred to as the Account Model and employed in the Ethereum ecosystem. The Balance model is much simpler compared to UTXO, with each public address holding a balance. It's also quite user-friendly with minimal storage problems since it doesn't need a large RAM to track unspent transactions.
However, unlike the UTXO model, the Balance model is helpless in double-spending attacks. This makes it suitable for chains that have smart contact functionality. Ethereum, for instance, prevents double-spending attacks using an increment nonce, which can be viewed by the public every time a transaction is made, the nonce is increased by one.
UTXO seems to be better than Balance in several attributes, including:
- It scales better compared to the Balance model. It can execute transactions in parallel, making it ideal for the use of "light wallets," which are usable on devices such as mobile or tablets, where the entire chain's download is impossible.
- UTXO offers a higher level of privacy as long as the users use new addresses for each transaction.
- The Balance model is more exposed to double-spending attacks that can compromise the entire blockchain network. It's almost impossible to carry out double-spending attacks in UTXO based blockchain since transactions are uniquely referenced in the database.
Concerns in the UTXO Model
While the UTXO model seems to be slightly better than the Balance model, it has some drawbacks. The major concern with UTXO is the problem of storage, i.e., an enormous amount of RAM is needed to store each transaction. Nodes store the UTXO database in RAM. Therefore, an enormous amount of RAM is required to keep the nodes running. This translates to an increase in the cost of running a full node.
The increased cost of running a node leads to further centralization of the Bitcoin network. Bitcoin developer Gavin Andresen
comments on UTXO stating, "A one-megabyte block is room for about 100 million 500-byte transactions per year. If every one of them increased the UTXO set by 500 bytes, that would grow the UTXO set 50 gigabytes a year." He calls for an increase in the block size and implementation of larger blocks to prevent centralization.
A potential solution to the storage problem is the use of memory swaps. In this protocol, nodes don't have to store the entire UTXO database in RAM. They can use less expensive solid-state disk (SSD) or spinning hard disk. Using external storage devices relieves the nodes of the cost of operations as disk space is quite cheap compared to memory. However, memory swap leads to slower validation times for each node. Nodes may require seconds to start creating new blocks. Nonetheless, this is not a big deal since they'll still operate under the ten-minute average block time.
Conclusion
UTXO is a vital part of the Bitcoin ecosystem to track unspent coins. This significantly simplifies keeping track of transactions in a blockchain network. Think of it, instead of tracking and storing each transaction in the network; we only need to track the unspent coin.
UTXOs are also crucial in preventing double-spend attacks, which could compromise the entire blockchain network. EcoChain is looking to adopt the UTXO model for its blockchain tanks to its benefits, including scalability and transaction privacy.
Disclaimer: This is not trading or investment advice. The above article is for entertainment and education purposes only. None of the content on Crypto Folds is investment advice nor is it a replacement for advice from a certified financial planner. Please do your own research before purchasing or investing into any cryptocurrency.
The crypto world is on the brink of a revolution with PERF , a next-generation utility token that combines advanced artificial intelligence and algorithmic trading to maximize investor profits. Designed by a team of experts in AI, data science, and crypto trading, PERF offers a unique opportunity to capitalize on market fluctuations with unparalleled precision. A Powerful AI Technology Driving Performance Unlike traditional tokens, PERF integrates a sophisticated artificial intelligence algorithm capable of analyzing market trends in real-time and accurately predicting the future movements of the most popular cryptocurrencies. This cutting-edge technology, the result of years of research and massive investments, has already demonstrated its efficiency with an ROI exceeding 75% in traditional financial markets. An Explosive Profit Opportunity Beyond its revolutionary technology, PERF offers several strategic advantages to investors: Exponential growth potential: With its highly anticipated market launch, PERF could see its value multiply by 100X or more . • An ecosystem of seasoned traders: PERF combines exclusive technology with a community of crypto trading experts to maximize daily returns. Our advanced tools and network of senior traders enable PERF holders to optimize their investments with remarkable efficiency and potentially explosive gains. • An innovative staking system offering more attractive rewards than other tokens on the market. PERF: The ICO Success of 2025 According to numerous analysts, PERF has all the ingredients to surpass Wall Street Pepe and become the top-performing ICO of 2025 . With a unique AI technology, a world-class team of experts, and an aggressive growth strategy, PERF is positioning itself as the next big player in the crypto sector. Join the PERF Revolution PERF is now available for pre-sale! This is the perfect time to buy and secure the lowest entry price before its value skyrockets. Don’t miss this unique opportunity to invest in the future of AI-powered crypto trading. Official website: https://performai.io/ Follow us on X: @RealPerformAI
Since trading with crypto is so popular nowadays, we wanted to find out which platforms charge the lowest fees. After all, the less you have to pay the exchange, the more it gets into your wallet. Our research came up with the best low-fee crypto trading platforms, including BYDFi, Binance, Coinbase, Kraken, and Crypto.com. Check out our review to discover which one should host your next crypto trades while charging you the least amount possible! BYDFi Best for: All-level traders looking for minimal or no KYC, high security, and multiple trading opportunities. Currencies: 400+ Trading pairs: Over 1,000 between crypto, Forex, indices, and commodities Transaction Fees: A 0.1% fee for Makers and Takers in spot trading. The platform charges a 0.06% fee for Takers and a 0.02% fee for Makers in perpetual futures trading. In leveraged tokens trading, the platform charges a 0.2% fee. BYDFi is a leading crypto trading platform offering customers a comprehensive suite of trading options and tools worldwide. It first entered the crypto industry in 2020 under the BitYard name and rebranded to BYDFi in 2023, inviting crypto enthusiasts to a new and unprecedented trading experience. BYDFi has numerous trading options, including spot trading, futures trading, and leveraged tokens trading. A copy trading service allows inexperienced traders to follow in the footsteps of more successful industry veterans. Furthermore, those who are entirely new to crypto trading can create a demo trading account and use virtual funds to simulate trades using real-time market movements and indicators. The only downside could be that BYDFi does not support staking and NFTs. One of the features that help BYDFi stand out from the competition is its no-KYC policy. You don't need to pass Know-Your-Customer verification to create an account or withdraw small amounts. Instead, the platform requires KYC only when if you wish to withdraw more than 1.5 BTC daily. BYDFi Exchange does not charge fees for cryptocurrency deposits. Its withdrawal fees vary greatly depending on the token, the network, and the amount withdrawn, but they are within the industry average rates. Depending on the traded coin, spot trading at BYDFi incurs a 0.1% fee for makers and takers. Perpetual contract fees include a 0.06% fee for Takers and a 0.02% fee for Makers. The platform also charges 0.2% transaction fees for leveraged tokens separately when buying or selling (USDT). Users with leveraged tokens must also pay a daily management fee of 0.03% of the true value of the leveraged tokens. BYDFi employs some of the highest security standards in the industry. It also supports seamless crypto conversion options and has a quick and efficient mobile application. Helpful customer support, competitive fees, and an overall user-centric approach make BYDFi one of the best low-fee crypto trading platforms in 2025. Binance Best for: Experienced traders looking for high-volume trades. Currencies: 350+ Trading pairs: 50+ Transaction Fees: Maker fee: 0.10% – 0.02%, Taker fee: 0.10% – 0.04%. Fees decrease with higher trading volume. Binance is the world’s most popular and biggest cryptocurrency exchange. The platform is also one of the oldest services in the industry, offering trading opportunities, and it has been around since 2017. Throughout the years, Binance has spearheaded innovation and amassed considerable liquidity to support high-volume trades. Today, the exchange serves over 250 million users worldwide. Binance is well-known for its extensive trading offering of over 350 cryptocurrencies. The platform's high-security level and advanced trading tools maintain it at the industry's apex, despite the exchange facing complaints for lack of transparency in recent years. Another important factor that attracts millions of daily users is Binance’s low fees and trade limits. The exchange charges trading fees that range from 0.01% to 0.1%. This means that new users can start with as little as 0.000001 BTC and a low-risk management strategy. Binance has a mobile app that users can easily install on iOS and Android devices to trade crypto wherever they go. Despite this streamlined approach to trading on the go, many Binance users have complained about the platform’s overcrowded dashboard, which may feel daunting for beginner traders. Binance allows users to trade hundreds of cryptocurrencies on Spot, Margin, and Futures markets. The exchange charges deposit and withdrawal fees that vary depending on the cryptocurrency. So, in a BYDFi vs. Binance confrontation on fees, the former wins since it doesn't charge users for deposits. Binance also charges fees for Spot trading, which apply to regular crypto trading. A Futures trading fee applies only to derivatives, such as Binance Futures. Lastly, users have to pay fees every time they engage in P2P transactions on the platform. Binance will be one of the top crypto trading platforms in 2025 despite security concerns and user complaints. The exchange ensures high-speed transactions, affordable fees, and several trading services. It supports hundreds of cryptocurrencies and possesses tremendous liquidity. However, the platform’s gradual focus on high-end, experienced traders means that beginners will have to look elsewhere when starting their crypto trading careers. Coinbase Best for: Beginners and intermediate traders looking to hone their skills. Currencies: More than 240 digital assets. Trading pairs: Over 300 different trading pairs Transaction Fees: Fees differ depending on the region, payment method, and the user’s pricing tier. Coinbase is another highly popular crypto trading platform and exchange with over 73 million users worldwide. The company was founded in 2012 during Bitcoin's early days. However, the exchange only rose to fame after later expanding its services from San Francisco, California, to over 100 countries. Many users choose Coinbase for its all-inclusive offer of crypto services. The platform lets you buy, sell, and store over 240 digital assets. The most popular cryptocurrencies, including Bitcoin and Ethereum, are in high demand on the platform and are the most involved in the platform’s high trading volumes Coinbase is also well-known for its solid security and liquidity backups. In fact, Coinbase is a publicly traded company with USD balances through FDIC-insured banks. This feature enables it to secure the users’ digital funds against security breaches. Nevertheless, the exchange has been the target of several accusations in the past, including a charge by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) for allegedly operating as an unregistered securities exchange. In terms of trading, Coinbase is suitable for crypto traders of all skills and knowledge, making it one of the few reliable BYDFi alternatives. Many traders choose the platform for its intuitive navigation and comprehensive educational resources, which are especially helpful for beginners. Trading fees on Coinbase may be consistently higher than on other crypto trading platforms. For example, you may have to pay anything between 0% and 0.6% on your trades, depending on the trade volume and the digital asset you choose. The platform supports you with several market indicators, in-depth analyses, and charts to help you manage your portfolio better. Regulatory restrictions may be some of the biggest downsides of using Coinbase. The exchange is available in many countries, but its services are subject to local regulations and differ from region to region. That’s why users from different countries may have entirely different trading experiences on Coinbase. All in all, Coinbase is a reliable entry in our list of the top crypto trading platforms in 2025. Despite legal controversies and regulatory issues, the exchange maintains a relatively positive reputation worldwide. Its substantial liquidity, security, and large number of cryptocurrencies and pairs make it a prime choice for all types of traders. Kraken Best for: Expert traders Currencies: 300+ Trading pairs: 50+ Transaction Fees: Maker fee: 0.16% – 0.00%, Taker fee: 0.26% – 0.10% (Pro Version). Kraken is another crypto exchange based in San Francisco, California, that offers crypto trading services. The platform is famous for its low fees and enhanced security measures. Over 10 million users worldwide vouch for its top-quality services and advanced trading features. Moreover, Kraken ranks high in liquidity, surpassed only by Binance and Coinbase. Users can rely on Kraken for multiple trading options with over 50 pairs. Newbies may want to remain in shallow waters and stick to the common buys and sells. On the other hand, expert users will choose Kraken for more complex trading features, such as margin trading and futures trading. In fact, the platform is the go-to trading venue for seasoned traders, and Kraken rewards them with a Pro version with some of the industry's lowest fees. Kraken charges transaction fees ranging from 0% to 0.26% per trade. The exchange also takes 3.75% + €0.25 for credit card purchases and 1.7% + $0.10 for online banking processing. Kraken also applies a 3% fee for converting balances less than the minimum order size. Pro version users will have to pay a 0.02% opening fee on margin trades and a rollover fee of the same amount every 4 hours. Those trading futures will have to pay anything between 0% and 0.16% as Makers and between 0.10% and 0.26% as Takers. Kraken also charges Pro users to trade stablecoins, pegged tokens, and FX pairs. Depending on the coin and trading volumes, these fees range from 0% to 0.2%. Many traders choose Kraken for security reasons. In fact, the platform has never suffered a massive security breach, due mainly to a consistent improvement of safety standards. While it remains a reliable crypto trading venue for all traders, Kraken makes our list thanks mostly to the low fees that Pro users enjoy. Crypto.com Best for: All-level traders who prefer mobile crypto trading. Currencies: 350+ cryptocurrencies Trading pairs: Over 400 pairs Transaction Fees: Fees differ depending on the trading volume. Crypto.com closes our list of the top low-fee crypto trading platforms in 2025. The exchange launched in 2016 and quickly gained global use and popularity. Today, Crypto.com boasts over 80 million users and is available in over 90 countries. Crypto.com is a popular platform for trading crypto mainly due to its high liquidity and robust security measures. The platform provides basic and advanced crypto trading features, including margin, spot, and over-the-counter (OTC) trading. Besides crypto trading services, Crypto.com attracts users with its digital ecosystem, which includes a blockchain, a native token (CRO), a mobile wallet, and a versatile range of tools and resources. The company also provides users with a crypto Visa card that they can use to process cryptocurrency payments. The card is accepted by over 60 million merchants worldwide. Crypto trading at Crypto.com is rather straightforward and accessible even by beginners. The platform charges competitive fees that vary greatly depending on the traded volume. For example, Crypto.com employs a seven-tier fee system in Spot and Margin trading. Level one involves a Total Spot Volume of less than $10,000. In this case, Makers have to pay a 0.2500% fee, and Takers are charged a 0.5000% fee. The fees decrease gradually until the 7th tier, which involves a volume equal to or larger than $10 million. In this case, Makers don't have to pay a fee, while Takers pay a 0.5000% fee. Crypto.com also has a VIP program whose members enjoy discounted fees. The exchange does not charge users for deposits. However, it will apply fees on all withdrawals. These charges vary depending on the coin, network, and volume. Overall, Crypto.com is a reliable platform for trading crypto. Its fees are not the lowest in the industry, but they are not deal-breakers either. The exchange enjoys global appreciation for its business-oriented approach with banking features, advanced trading options, and far-reaching support for multiple assets. Among the downsides of using this platform would be the below-par customer support and its unavailability in the United States, China, Hong Kong, Singapore, Canada, and the United Kingdom. These are the top low-fee crypto trading platforms in 2025. This year, we should see a significant increase in crypto trades, and each of these platforms can provide you with an unmatched crypto trading experience. Choose the one that best suits your level, experience, and strategy. More importantly, remember to do your due diligence and consider risk management options before engaging in crypto trades.
QDVI (QDV) is changing real estate investment by bringing luxury properties to the blockchain. Investors can now own shares in high-end hotels and premium apartments through tokenization. This model lowers the entry barrier to luxury real estate, making it more accessible. The ICO launch gives investors a secure and transparent way to invest in real estate-backed digital assets. Token holders can earn passive income, stake tokens, and refer others for commissions. The funds raised will help build a 5-star hotel in Kudowa-Zdrój and expand QDVI’s global property portfolio. Tokenized Real Estate: A New Investment Model QDVI allows investors to own fractions of high-value properties. Tokenization simplifies the process and adds liquidity, unlike traditional real estate investments. Here are some key highlights on this newly born project: Lower Entry Costs—Investors can join with small amounts instead of large capital. Blockchain Security—All transactions are recorded on an immutable ledger, ensuring transparency. Passive Income—Token holders earn from staking rewards and rental profits from QDVI properties. Sustainable Approach—Properties use eco-friendly materials and energy-efficient systems. This hybrid model merges traditional real estate ownership with modern blockchain advantages. A Growing Community of Real Estate and Web3 Enthusiasts QDVI offers multiple ways to earn and engage with luxury real estate investments, making it rewarding and accessible for everyone. With as little as $100, investors can stake QDVI tokens to earn passive income from rental profits and property profit-sharing. The platform also features a referral program. The system offers 10% commissions in USDT or USDC for bringing in new investors, with instant payouts and complete transparency. Token holders enjoy multiple exclusive perks with this project. The benefits include discounted stays at QDVI properties, VIP privileges, priority booking, and access to exclusive events. Global Expansion and Future Plans QDVI is building a 5-star hotel in Kudowa-Zdrój, Poland, as its flagship property. The roadmap includes acquiring luxury apartments in Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. Future plans focus on: Expanding real estate holdings in prime global destinations. Enhancing sustainability with green building practices. Increasing liquidity through token trading options. With blockchain transparency and secure investment structures, QDVI offers a new way to invest in luxury real estate. About QDVI QDVI is a blockchain-powered real estate investment platform. It enables investors to own shares in luxury hotels and apartments. The $QDVI token provides staking rewards, profit-sharing, and exclusive perks. Through secure blockchain technology, QDVI makes high-end property investment accessible, transparent, and rewarding. QDVI's tokenomics mentions a total supply of 50,000,000,000 QDV coins. Nearly a third (30%) of the supply will go to the ICO. The rest will fund development, the presale, marketing efforts, and more. The project's ICO is a way to join the growing QDVI community and approach its vision to revolutionize real estate investment. Anyone curious to learn more about QDVI can check out the project's official website and the social pages below. X (Twitter) | Telegram
SwissRx Coin has announced a plan to transform healthcare finance and supply chains using blockchain technology. The project streamlines payments, reduces costs, and addresses the critical issue of counterfeit medications by creating a transparent, secure infrastructure for the pharmaceutical industry. The World Health Organization estimates that counterfeit drugs pose a serious threat to global health. SwissRx Coin’s blockchain-based solution tracks each product from manufacturing to distribution, preventing harmful counterfeits from entering the supply chain and ensuring the authenticity of medications. SwissRx Coin: Goals and Vision SwissRx Coin aims to solve critical challenges in the healthcare sector through three core objectives: - Combat Counterfeit Medications: SwissRx Coin introduces a blockchain-based traceability system that tracks and verifies the journey of every pharmaceutical product. This protects both healthcare providers and patients from counterfeit drugs. - Simplify Healthcare Financial Transactions: By integrating payment processing into a blockchain network, SwissRx Coin reduces costs, delays, and Transactions between healthcare providers, pharmacies, and insurers are streamlined and secure. - Increase Transparency and Trust: Blockchain’s immutable ledger records every transaction and movement in the supply chain, promoting regulatory compliance and building trust across the healthcare ecosystem. Key Features of SwissRx Coin SwissRx Coin leverages advanced blockchain technology to create a secure, efficient, and transparent solution for healthcare transactions. Key features include: - Secure and Transparent Supply Chain: Each transaction and product movement is recorded on the blockchain, allowing healthcare providers and regulators to verify product origins and authenticity. - Fast, Low-Cost Transactions: Payments are processed instantly with minimal fees, making global healthcare transactions more efficient. - Eco-Friendly Operations: SwissRx Coin utilizes energy-efficient blockchain technology through Proof of Stake (PoS), reducing carbon - Swiss-Standard Compliance: Built on Swiss precision and trust, SwissRx Coin adheres to strict regulatory requirements. - Decentralized Staking Opportunities: Investors can stake SWRX coins and earn passive rewards, contributing to the platform’s growth and adoption. Stake here: https://stake.smithii.io/swissrx-staking. - Global Reach: The platform supports international transactions, connecting suppliers, manufacturers, and distributors Combatting Counterfeit Medications Counterfeit medications cause significant harm worldwide. SwissRx Coin’s blockchain technology provides an unalterable, traceable record for each product’s journey, from manufacturing to distribution. This prevents counterfeits from entering the supply chain, improving patient safety and trust in healthcare services. Healthcare providers can scan product IDs to verify legitimacy before distribution, ensuring patients receive only authentic medicines. Why SwissRx Coin is a Strong Investment Opportunity SwissRx Coin addresses urgent needs in the global healthcare and pharmaceutical sectors with its innovative, blockchain-powered solutions. Key investment highlights include: - High-Impact Industry: The healthcare and pharmaceutical sectors require financial and supply chain modernization. SwissRx Coin offers cutting-edge technology to meet these demands. - Unique Value Proposition: SwissRx Coin streamlines payments while enhancing global healthcare safety and compliance through robust traceability solutions. - Real-World Application: The platform provides solutions for both financial transactions and product authentication, positioning itself as a leader in healthcare’s digital transformation. About SwissRx Coin SwissRx Coin is a payment and pharmaceutical traceability platform for healthcare, based on blockchain technology. It stops counterfeit drugs by recording crucial product data, which healthcare providers can scan to verify authenticity. This ensures that only safe medications reach patients. SwissRx Coin integrates payments into this system, enhancing security and efficiency. With quick transactions, eco-friendly operations, and strict regulatory compliance, SwissRx Coin provides reliable solutions for healthcare providers, professionals, and patients worldwide. Anyone wishing to know about the SwissRx Coin project can view the website of the project. The social media platforms (listed below) have the most updated information and updates about the development of the project. X (Twitter) | Telegram
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